Exercise Tests for Aerobic Capacity | Evaluation

Exercise Tests for Aerobic Capacity | Evaluation Evaluation of Exercise Tests Used to Examine Aerobic Capacity Aerobic exercise was developed by Dr. Kenneth Cooper in 1969, to study why some individuals with superior muscular strength, scored poorly in long distance running, cycling or swimming regimes (Cooper, 1969). Dr. Cooper’s research involved using a bicycle ergometer to measure sustained human performance, in terms of an individual’s ability to utilize oxygen (Cooper, 1969). The data Dr. Cooper collected for his research is the foundation for the development of all modern aerobic tests and programs (Cooper, 1969). Aerobic exercise describes a physical activity performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time; ultimately increasing heart rate (Donatelle, 1969). This includes exercises like long distance jogging but not sprinting (Donatelle, 1969). In aerobic exercise, glycogen is decomposed to produce glucose; however, when glucose levels are minimal, fat is broken down (Donatelle, 1969). The ability an individual’s respiratory and cardiovascul ar systems can meet the oxygen demands of exercising muscles is called aerobic capacity (NYCFD, 2006). It is the maximum volume of oxygen muscles will intake during exercise (Donatelle, 1969). High aerobic capacity translates to better performance (Donatelle, 1969), not only because oxygen is efficiently delivered to and used by muscles, but also because recovery from extreme efforts by the muscles is faster (NYCFD, 2006). To boost aerobic capacity, heart rate needs to be worked up to 70% to 85% of its maximum; this is known as the heart’s â€Å"Target Heart Rate† or â€Å"Training Sensitive Zone† (NYCFD, 2006). This can be done by participating in aerobic training that recruits large muscle groups, such as those in the legs (NYCFD, 2006). As exercise intensity increases, oxygen consumption (VO2) linearly relates to workload, but only to a certain point, where VO2 plateaus, even as exercise intensity rises (McArdle et al, 2001). This plateau value, known as the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), is synonymous with aerobic power (Peterson, 2004), which is defined as the extent at which aerobic capacity, the peak aerobic energy strength, is exploited (Sports Resource Group, 2003). However, VO2 max is not the only predictor of aerobic capacity (Peterson, 2004); expressed as a fraction of VO2 max (% VO2 max ) (Peterson, 2004), the physiological value (LT), typically known as lactate threshold or anaerobic threshold (Peterson, 2004), also provides valuable information. LT defines situations when glycogen decomposition does not meet the required energy demands of the exercising muscles (Donatelle, 2005), and measures the degree of muscular and metabolic stress during exercise (Peterson, 2004). It is the point above restin g level, when light elevating levels of exercise causes glycogenolysis increases (Peterson, 2004), and lactate begins to accumulate in active muscles and blood (Farrell et al, 1993). Although lactic acid build up is removed gradually by slow oxidative muscle fibers, lactic acid often builds up in muscles before LT is reached (Peak Performance, 2006). Since there is no definitive start point in lactic acid build up, a set lactate accumulation value of 4 mmol/L of lactic acid in the blood is usually used as the point of onset of blood lactic acid (OBLA) (Peterson, 2004). LT is considered to be a more accurate predictor of aerobic capacity than VO2 max, however, it pertains only to the local muscles’ training state (Peterson, 2004). The LT phenomenon helps to explain why individuals with similar VO2 max can differ in endurance performance times (Peterson, 2004); those with a higher LT exhibit better ability to exercise because they use a larger fraction of their aerobic capacity (85-90% VO2 max) (Peterson, 2004). Factors leading to these results include examining whether subjects have undergone previous strength and endurance training in the muscles being analyzed and the percentage of Type 1 muscle fibers in the targeted muscles (Peterson, 2004). Exercise tests that informatively examine aerobic capacity, should help describe the overall changes in the cardiovascular system, as well as the local changes in the muscles, active in exercise (Peterson, 2004). Theses changes, collectively known as adaptations (Peterson, 2004), include increase in plasma volume, blood flow redirection to active muscles, heart size enlargement, heart rate reduction (HR), stroke volume elevation (SV), increase in cardiac output (Q), total muscle blood flow increase during maximal exercise and blood pressure reduction (Peterson, 2004). When capillary density is increased because of aerobic exercise, muscles take in more oxygen (Peterson, 2004). The local adaptations of the muscles that should be regarded as a part of examining aerobic capacity include: increase in the number and size of mitochondria, more carbohydrate oxidation because of increased oxidative enzyme activity, improved fat metabolism, the amount of muscle and type of muscle fiber eviden t during the exercise (Peterson, 2004). Today, common forms of aerobic capacity testing are the treadmill (TM), walk tests and cycle ergometer (CE) tests (Peterson, 2004). These methods are effective because they require the use of large muscle groups and are also cheap and straightforward enough for subjects to handle (Peterson, 2004). In all incidences, the clinical exercise testing protocols would involve initial warm-up; gradual increasing loads of uninterrupted exercise, with adequate duration per level; and finally a recovery period (Fletcher et al, 1995). Endurance running can be defined as maintainable velocity over a given distance (Peterson, 2004). Measuring aerobic capacity using treadmill facilitated tests require subjects to walk at a light pace, then gradually pickup the workload at set time intervals (Donatelle, 1969). The equipment used is an accurately calibrated, standard treadmill with variable speed and grade capability (Fletcher et al, 1995). Subjects should refrain from tightly grasping handrails on the treadmill during the test, as this results in decrease in VO2 and increase in muscle exertion and exercise time (Fletcher et al, 1995). The duration of an average protocol is 6 to 12 minutes (Fletcher et al, 1995), but a number of different protocols exist, varying in the increments of time or amount of increase in workload (Fletcher et al, 1995). The ideal protocol however, should be tailored to the type of subject being tested (Fletcher et al, 1995). The values usually measured in TM tests, VO2 and peak cardiac power output (CPOmax) , (Fletcher et al, 1995), give an idea about an individual’s aerobic capacity, and are used as data for many different studies. For example, studies have used TM tests to determine aerobic capacity of subjects (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). Their data gave evidence that CPOmax during exercise, was significantly related to aerobic capacity and also correlated to exercise duration (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). CPOmax was found to be an independent mortality predictor (Williams et al, 2001), and using TM cardiopulmonary exercise testing is beneficial because it is non-invasive, therefore less stressful for patients to participate (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). This finding was consistent in a population of normal subjects and individuals with heart disease (Cooke et al, 1998), and ultimately gave a more definitive idea about the extent of cardiac impai rment of patients with heart failure (Williams et al, 2001 and Cooke et al, 1998). A lower impact alteration of the TM test is the six minute walk test (6MWT), which is cheaper and simpler to conduct (American Thoracic Society, 2002). This test is usually used on patients with health problems, and measures the distance of hard, flat surface subjects can briskly over in 6 minutes (American Thoracic Society, 2002). The test is useful for evaluating the body’s overall and local adaptation responses involved in exercise (American Thoracic Society, 2002). This includes pulmonary and cardiovascular systems, systemic circulation, peripheral circulation, blood, neuromuscular units, and muscle metabolism (American Thoracic Society, 2002). However, since the 6MWT evaluates the submaximal level of functional capacity (American Thoracic Society, 2002), information generated is not specific about the causes of limitation (Johnson, 2004). Measuring performance at submaximal levels of exertion, the 6MWD gives a good indication of the level of functional exercise in daily physical activities (American Thoracic Society, 2002). However, for patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), the test generates a similar stress as a maximal test (Johnson, 2004). In studies conducted using a population of patients with cardiac and or respiratory problems (Solway et al, 2001), the 6MWT was established to be the easiest to administer, most tolerated by patients and most reflective of daily activities, out of 2-min walk tests (2MWT), 12-min walk tests (12MWT), self-paced walk tests (SPWT), and shuttle walk tests (SWT) (Solway et al, 2001). In order to study the effects aerobic and strength training have on improving aerobic endurance and muscle strength in female cardiac transplant recipients (Haykowsky et al, 2005), the 6MWT was administered to measure cardiac transplant patients’ aerobic endurance befor e and after placing them in aerobic training programs (Haykowsky et al, 2005). However, firm conclusions on the usefulness of the test in clinical practice, are still lacking (Opasich et al, 2001). In a study to investigate the correlation between walk test performance, cardiac function and exercise capacity (Opasich et al, 2001), it was found that for moderate to severe chronic heart failure patients, the 6-min walk test is not related to cardiac function and only moderately related to exercise capacity (Opasich et al, 2001). Therefore, the paper deemed the test to have only limited usefulness as a decisional indicator in clinical practice (Opasich et al, 2001). Some disadvantages of the 6MWT is that being a time controlled test, the only way a subject can show improved aerobic capacity in subsequent testing, is by walking faster (Johnson, 2004). However, for some COPD patients, walking faster is difficult due to factors such as stride length (Johnson, 2004); a TM test on the other hand can accommodate for a steeper grade, hence allowing patients to show improvements in their overall condition (Johnson et al, 2002). TM testing can be deemed better than 6MWT as it is more versatile; it can be used with or without advanced monitoring such as continuous electrocardiography or expired gas analysis (Johnson, 2004). However, TM tests are more expensive and require more expertise (Johnson, 2004). Although 6MWT is a good test to repeat for the purposes of documenting decline in exercise tolerance (Johnson, 2004), TM tests are better at documenting improvements in function because they test at constant workload, and is therefore more sensitive (Johns on, 2004). For individuals untrained in cycling, VO2 max is higher when tested on TM compared to CE (Peterson, 2004), while trained cyclists generated only slightly higher VO2 max values when tested via CE compared to TM (Peterson, 2004). VO2 values from TM tests are generally higher than those attained from CE protocols (McArdle et al, 2001). The cause is because most individuals are more comfortable walking or running, as oppose to cycling (McArdle et al, 2001). It could also be because CE testing causes discomfort and fatigue of the quadriceps muscles (Fletcher et al, 1995). Leg fatigue of an inexperienced cyclist causes subjects to stop before reaching a true VO2max (Fletcher et al, 1995), making the value 10% to 15% lower in CE than TM tests (Fletcher et al, 1995). In cycling terms, endurance performance is the power output maintained for a given time (Peterson, 2004). CE tests require an initial power output of about 10 or 25W, followed by a 25W increase in 2 to 3 minute increments (Fletcher et al, 1995). Arm ergometry would require a similar approach, but with a smaller initial power output and lower incremental increases; usually every 2 minutes (Franklin, 1985 and Balady et al, 1985). Studies have also shown that it is possible to measure actual aerobic capacity in a single session by continuously increasing the load (Birkhorst Leeuwen, 1963). The equipment used for CE tests can either be mechanical or electrically braked cycles with adjustable variable force on the pedals (Fletcher et al, 1995). The highest values of VO2 and heart rate can usually be obtained with pedaling speeds of 50 to 80 rpm (Fletcher et al, 1995). The cycles are calibrated in kilopounds (kp) or watts, where 1 W corresponds to about 6 kilopound-meters per minute (kpm/min) (Fletcher et al, 1995). This can be converted to oxygen uptake in milliliters per minute for aerobic capacity measurement purposes (Fletcher et al, 1995). A cycle ergometer is usually less expensive, more space efficient and less noisy than a treadmill (Fletcher et al, 1995). Other advantages of CE tests are that upper body movement of subjects’ are reduced, which facilitates measurements in blood pressure and making ECG recordings (Fletcher et al, 1995). CE tests also give precise quantization of external work, ultimately facilitating the calculation of certain parameters for aerobic capacity examination (Johnson, 2004). Like the TM test, it is important that subjects refrain from exercising their arms in a resistive fashion, because this results in attaining inaccurate data for aerobic capacity (Fletcher et al, 1995). In studies of patients with COPD, in addition to being inconsistent with patients’ normal activities, CE tests are less commonly used because they produced significant respiratory differences when compared with walking tests (Johnson, 2004). However, CE tests have been useful for identifying that the pathology of Gulf War veterans (GV) with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), do not show a decreased aerobic capacity like most normal CFS patients (Nagelkirk et al, 2003). Overall, although TM, 6MWT and CE tests are all used to examine aerobic capacity, there are fundamental differences between the three tests (Peterson, 2004); these include differences in the muscle group exerted, pattern of muscle use, contraction speed and time of muscles and the metabolic processes (Peterson, 2004). In summary, TM and walking tests are more likely to identify oxygen desaturation (Turner et al, 2004). 6MWT is the easiest test to perform (Turner et al, 2004), and is adequate for most purposes (Johnson, 2004). However, depending on how and what the data from the aerobic capacity testing is used for, an important factor for choosing the most suitable test is the population of subjects being observed. References American Thoracic Society 2002, ‘ATS Statement: Guidelines for the Six-Minute Walk Test’, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, vol. 166, pp. 111-117, viewed 24 23 April 2006, http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/166/1/111.pdf> Balady G.J., Weiner D.A., McCabe C.H., Ryan T.J. 1985, Value of Arm Exercise Testing in Detecting Coronary Artery Disease, Am. J. Cardiol., vol. 55, pp. 37-39. Birkhorst R.A., and Leeuwen P.V., 1963, ‘A Rapid Method for the Determination of Aerobic Capacity’, European Journal of Applied Physiology, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 459-467, viewed 22 April 2006, http://www.springerlink.com/media/16jvphlgmre1hfpuupvn/contributions/v/5/0/2/v502752208v3240h.pdf> Cooke G.A., Hainsworth R., Marshall P., Tan L.B., Al-Timman J.K., Riley R., Wright D.J. 1998, ‘Physiological Cardiac Reserve: Development of a Non-Invasive Method and First Estimates in Man’, Heart, vol. 79, March, pp. 289-294, viewed 23 April 2006, http://heart.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/79/3/289> Cooper K., Aerobics, New York: Bantam Books, 1969 Donatelle R.J 1969, Health: The Basics, 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education Inc., 2005. Farrell P.A., Wilmore J.H., Coyle E.F., Billing J.E., and Costill D.L. 1993, Plasma Lactate Accumulation and Distance Running Performance; 1979, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.,vol.25, no. 10, pp. 1091-1097 and 1089-1090. Fletcher GF, Balady G, Froelicher VF, Hartley LH, Haskell WL, Pollock L. 1995, ‘Exercise standards: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association’. Circulation, vol. 91, pp 580-615, http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/91/2/580?ijkey=0811df26787e2a783372541f0bbaae62282badf6keytype2=tf_ipsecsha> Franklin B.A. 1985, Exercise Testing, Training and Arm Ergometry, Sports Med., vol. 2, pp. 100-119. Haykowsky M.., Figgures L., Jones L., Kim D., Riess K., Tymchak W., Warburton D. 2005, ‘Exercise Training Improves Aerobic Endurance and Musculoskeletal Fitness in Female Cardiac Transplant Recipients’, Curr Control Trials Cardiovasc Med, vol.6, no. 1, pp. 6-10, viewed 22 April 2006, http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1166569blobtype=pdf> Johnson J.E. 2004,Which Exercise Test Should Be Used for Patients with Symptomatic COPD, Chest, vol.126, pp. 668-670, viewed 23 April 2006, http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/reprint/126/3/668.pdf> Johnson J.E., Gavin D.J., Adams-Dramiga 2002, ‘S Effect of Training with Heliox and Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation on Exercise Ability in Patients with Severe COPD’, Chest, vol. 122, pp. 464-472. McArdle W.D., Katch F.I., and Katch V.L. 2001. Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance; Chapter 7 Oxygen Consumption. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. (NYCFD) New York City Fire Department 2006, Aerobic Fitness; To Improve Aerobic Capacity, New York, viewed 24 April 2006, http://www.nyc.gov/html/fdny/html/fitness/fitness_aerobic.shtml>. Opasich C., Capomolla S., Cobelli F., Febo O., Forni G., Pinna G.D., Mazza A., Riccardi R., Riccardi P.G., and Tavazzi L. 2001, ‘Six-Minute Walking Performance in Patients with Moderate-to-Severe Heart Failure: Is it a Useful Indicator in Clinical Practice?’ European Heart Journal, vol. 22, pp. 488–496, viewed 22 April 2006, http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/22/6/488.pdf> Peak Performance 2006, Fitness Testing; Critical Swim Speed, United Kingdom, viewed 21 April 2006, http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/0162.htm> Peterson A. 2004, Can endurance running performance be predicted from cycling performance? Curtin University of Technology; School of Physiotherapy, viewed 22 April 2006, http://physiotherapy.curtin.edu.au/resources/educational-resources/exphys/00/specificity.cfm> Solway S., Brooks D., Lacasse Y., and Thomas S. 2001, ‘A Qualitative Systematic Overview of the Measurement Properties of Functional Walk Tests Used in the Cardiorespiratory Domain’. Chest , vol. 119, pp. 256-270, viewed 22 April 2006, http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/reprint/119/1/256.pdf> Sports Resource Group Inc 2003, Lactate Testing for Triathlon Coaches A Framework for Testing, Lactate.com, viewed 23 April 2006, http://www.lactate.com/triathlon/trtest.htm> Turner S.E., Eastwood P.R., Cecins N.M., Hillman D.R., Jenkins S.C. 2004, Physiologic Responses to Incremental and Self-Paced Exercise in COPD: A comparison of Three Tests, Chest, vol. 126, no.3, pp. 766-73. Williams S.G., Cooke G.A., Marshall P., Parsons W.J., Riley P., Tan L.B., and Wright D.J. 2001, ‘Peak Exercise Cardiac Power Output; A Direct Indicator of Cardiac Function Strongly Predictive of Prognosis in Chronic Heart Failure’, European Heart Journal, vol. 22, pp. 1496-1503, viewed 23 April 2006, http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/22/16/1496.pdf>

The Swatch Group Essay examples -- Business Management Marketing Essay

The Swatch Group: Competing In An Increasingly Global Market For Watches Nicholas Hayek and Ernst Thomke formed the Swatch Group (the Group) in 1983 by merging two bankrupt watch-making groups. The merger gave the Group ownership of many of the Switzerland’s dominant watch brands. Swatch, their first product initiative, was so successful that it helped pull the squandering Swiss watch industry out of a slump. In June 1999, with its 14 brands, the Group was the world’s largest watch manufacturer (in value terms). However, the global industry had changed and would continue to change dramatically in the new millennium. The Swatch Group was at a strategic crossroad and had to analyze the industry’s past and future in order to determine its next move. What proceeds is an in-depth analysis of the Swatch Group’s competitive position the global watch industry. We will identify a problem and offer several alternative actions to address this problem. Finally, we will discuss how to implement and evaluate these suggestions. Industry Snapshot: 1999 Historically, the watch industry had been fragmented and protected by the national governments of many countries. In the 1980s and 1990s, however, the competitive environment began to change. First and foremost, newly formed companies began to mass-produce low-cost, technologically advanced watches. The emergence of these products dramatically changed the way people bought and sold watches. Another dominant factor for change was consolidation. As companies merged, they improved their competitive positions through improved distribution, R&D, marketing, and economies of scale. These conglomerates slowly became major global players against which many watch manufactures could not compete. Initially, Swiss watch manufactures chose not to respond to many of these changes. They valued the inherent art of watch making and as such refused to succumb to the competitive pressures of large multinationals such as Seiko and Citizen. As a result, the industry took a dive in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Many companies and groups went bankrupt. Included were the two major groups that Hayek, together with a group of investors, bought back from Swiss creditors. In just a few years, they lifted the merged company (the Swatch Group) out of financial turmoil. Through strategic initiatives, they streamlined and rejuvenated many of t... ... entice consumers and improve brand image. Both strategies would help increase market share in a high-margin/low-volume segment. Let us now discuss how to best implement these suggestions. Implementation The key to successful implementation would be proper planning. The Group may have to restructure the way it’s units are organized so as to better determine which brands would be most viable in each geographic area. Under this plan, the Group would open new retail shops in which it would sell its own brands and any complimentary items that consumers would associate with watches. First and foremost, the Group should establish high tech, JIT-ready distribution centers in the geographic areas in which it plans on opening new retail shops. This would ensure that the shops stay replenished, but not cluttered with too much merchandise. The Swatch group would also need to expand its research and development staff. It would need to hire younger, creative people who know what is going on the world of technology, sports, and the arts. As such, they would be in touch with the needs of these markets. Only then could the Group determine what innovative products to develop and market.

Television in the Information Age Essay -- TV Media Technology Essays

Television in the Information Age Introduction Television. Most Americans today cannot imagine life without it. It is how we relax, laugh, learn, and stay up to date on current events. The inventors of television may not have realized the impact of combining sound with moving pictures. For the first time in the history of the world we were and are able to peek into the lives of people we will never meet and visit places we will never go. It has even changed the way we communicate with each other in our everyday lives! Who has not heard or used the phrase coined by the sitcom, Seinfield, â€Å"†¦not that there’s anything wrong with that†¦.†? This analysis will first examine the origins of television and the evolution of television technology throughout the years. Next, it will examine the current trends within the industry, and how our government has shaped these trends, the companies that are involved in the industry, and finally, the future of television in the new sub-age of the Infor mation Age, the Digital Age. History The Information Age has its origins in the late nineteenth century when people began to see a need for ways to communicate large amounts of information to large numbers of people over a large geographical area quickly and accurately. Each Information Age invention acted as a catalyst for the next innovation, which without fail was an improvement upon its predecessor. This continuous improvement was made possible by constant research and discovery in the sciences, which enabled the development of new technologies crucial to the advancement of the objectives of the Information Age. The invention of the radio caused scientists to begin thinking about a way to develop an infor... ...result in the inseparable linkage of the two technologies. In the process of this linkage the TV in the traditional sense will start looking more and more like a computer. When this process is complete, the analog TV may have to step down from its position as the most influential Information Age invention to date and hand its â€Å"title† on to the computer. Forty years from now children may not even know what an analog TV is or how they work save what they read in a school history textbook. Computers have infiltrated nearly every area of life in general including medicine, transportation, art, music, -the list is endless, and therefore, its infiltration of TV is not surprising. For more information about the history, evolution, mechanisms, technology, marketplace, or future of TV and current trends in the industry please see this analysis’ supplemental links. Television in the Information Age Essay -- TV Media Technology Essays Television in the Information Age Introduction Television. Most Americans today cannot imagine life without it. It is how we relax, laugh, learn, and stay up to date on current events. The inventors of television may not have realized the impact of combining sound with moving pictures. For the first time in the history of the world we were and are able to peek into the lives of people we will never meet and visit places we will never go. It has even changed the way we communicate with each other in our everyday lives! Who has not heard or used the phrase coined by the sitcom, Seinfield, â€Å"†¦not that there’s anything wrong with that†¦.†? This analysis will first examine the origins of television and the evolution of television technology throughout the years. Next, it will examine the current trends within the industry, and how our government has shaped these trends, the companies that are involved in the industry, and finally, the future of television in the new sub-age of the Infor mation Age, the Digital Age. History The Information Age has its origins in the late nineteenth century when people began to see a need for ways to communicate large amounts of information to large numbers of people over a large geographical area quickly and accurately. Each Information Age invention acted as a catalyst for the next innovation, which without fail was an improvement upon its predecessor. This continuous improvement was made possible by constant research and discovery in the sciences, which enabled the development of new technologies crucial to the advancement of the objectives of the Information Age. The invention of the radio caused scientists to begin thinking about a way to develop an infor... ...result in the inseparable linkage of the two technologies. In the process of this linkage the TV in the traditional sense will start looking more and more like a computer. When this process is complete, the analog TV may have to step down from its position as the most influential Information Age invention to date and hand its â€Å"title† on to the computer. Forty years from now children may not even know what an analog TV is or how they work save what they read in a school history textbook. Computers have infiltrated nearly every area of life in general including medicine, transportation, art, music, -the list is endless, and therefore, its infiltration of TV is not surprising. For more information about the history, evolution, mechanisms, technology, marketplace, or future of TV and current trends in the industry please see this analysis’ supplemental links.

Bi sexuality of emily dickinson Essay examples -- essays papers

Bi sexuality of emily dickinson The inner-workings of Emily Dickinson’s mind continue to be an enigma to literary scholars, worldwide. Dickinson’s agoraphobia caused her to live a solitary and secluded life in her Amherst, Massachusetts home for a large portion of her life. â€Å"She rarely received visitors, and in her mature years she never went out† (Ferguson, et. al.; 1895). It is also known that she was in love with a married man (no one knows for sure exactly who this man was) who eventually ended their relationship and this left her very distraught. Some scholars believe that at one point in her life, Dickinson suffered a nervous breakdown, possibly caused by the break-up of the relationship. A woman named Rebecca Patterson exposed the most dramatic and shocking revelation about Emily Dickinson’s life. Patterson’s discovered that many of the emotional love poems that Dickinson wrote were addressed to women. She published her findings in a 1951 book entitled The Rid dle of Emily Dickinson. It was later found out that Dickinson wrote many letters of sexual fantasy and longing to several women. The most notable of these women was her good friend and sister-in-law, Sue Gilbert. The discovery of Dickinson’s affection for woman does not contradict the fact that she was deeply in love with a man at some point in her life. There are many love poems that Dickinson wrote to men. In today’s society, Emily would probably be considered a bi-sexual. Homoerotic thoughts and tendencies were not a possibility during Dickinson’s time because the idea of homosexuality had yet to be socially constructed. That is the reason she had to hide the true intentions of her poetry. The love poems that Dickinson wrote to men are distinc... ... life. The last four lines in the poem specify the seeking of an emotional attachment to a woman. Dickinson’s reference to the other woman’s heart as a home implies that fact. Other examples of her poetry show that Dickinson was not receiving the emotional support she needed from heterosexual relationships, so she looked for it elsewhere. Emily Dickinson’s poetry not only contributed extensively to the world of literature but it also helped inspire the female voice to break free from the shackles of oppression that society placed upon it. Her writing told women that it was o.k. for them to express their feelings, hardships, and desires no matter how taboo the subject might have been or how negatively society would have perceived them. For these reasons Emily Dickinson’s writings and poetry will continue to be studied and admired by women for generations to come.

Character analysis of “The Hitch-Hiker” by Roald Dahl Essay

The hitch hiker’s appearance was described as a small ratty faced man with grey teeth, rat like eyes, slightly pointed ears, wearing a cloth hat, greyish coloured jacket with enormous pockets. In other words, he looked like a human rat. In my opinion I think that Roald Dahl describes the hitch hiker similarly to a rat so that it makes the reader assume that the hitch hiker is probably a looney-toon, murderer or some other sort of criminal. Once the reader assume that, it will make them predict that something bad or interesting will happen involving the narrator and hitch hiker. The hitch hiker’s appearance as a rat also predicts his personality. When normal human beings think of ratty type people, their stereotypical reaction will be that the person is selfish, backstabbing, dirty, smelly, disloyal, violent and probably a criminal. At the beginning of the story, the narrator asks the hitch hiker why the he was going to the horse races if he wasn’t going to bet, the hitch hiker acts as if he didn’t hear the question and doesn’t seem to like it. These actions predict that something is up, otherwise why wouldn’t he answer the question. In the story, the hitch hiker has very fast hands. He managed to roll up a cigarette in just 5 seconds. He also managed to knick off the narrators watch, wallet, shoelace, driving license, key ring with keys, coins, a letter, a diary, and an expensive sapphire and pearl ring, belonging to the narrators wife. The hitch hikers extremely talented hands make the readers assume that the hitch hiker’s job, that he has been hiding all along, had something to do with his hands, leading the reader to assume that he was probably a pick pocket. Yet again Roald Dahl makes the readers assume something and then surprises the reader; in this case the hitch hiker is actually a finger smith, apparently the top position in the pick pocket career. When the hitch hiker speaks, he has an accent, for example he says, ‘guv’nor’ ‘od’carrier’. This lets the readers know that he is probably not from London, and from the country side. The most noticeable thing about the hitch hiker’s speech is that he manages to criticize everything as if he looks down on every type of job out there. For example when the narrator guesses the hitch hikers job as a piano player, the hitch hiker responds saying, â€Å"My job, is a hundred times more difficult than a piano player, any twerp can learn how to do that.† When the narrator guesses that the hitch hiker is a card player, the hitch hiker responds saying, â€Å"Me! A rotten cardsharper? That’s a miserable racket if ever there was one.†The hitch hiker criticizing every job makes the reader think that he must be incredibly skilled and talented, and that his job is the most knowledgeable job out there. Yet again, Roald Dahl surprises the readers that the hitch hiker is in the criminal business even though all the clues add up to it. The relationship between the narrator and hitch hiker is very surprising and unpredictable. It turns out that they become friends in the end despite the fact that the hitch hiker is a criminal and the narrator is a successful writer. I think that Roald Dahl teaches a little lesson in this story that even the two most opposite type people can have something in common and become friends.

Hyperactivity Disorder as a disorder experienced

Russell Barkley (1995) defines Attention Deficit Hyperactivity malady as a infirmity undergo in the developmental stage of churlren which is manifested by signs such as attention problems, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. It is a truly disorder and a real problem and often results to negative implications.It potful ca use delirious difficulties too on the part of the p atomic number 18nt. Attention Deficit distract is a hidden disability as there are no outbound signs that there is something physically wrong with the profound nervous system or forefront except for the series of behavioral changes (as cited in the About Website, 2006) . It is a real childishness illness that affect the way children act, think, and feel.Several explanations of the factors that guide to the development of this disorder cede been offered. The brokertical aspect bears one. As cited in the tale by the National Health and medical exam Research Council Government of Australia (2000), people w ith this disorder underwent cases of mutations in their dopamine transporter genes (Cook, Stein, Krakowski et al 1995) or receptor genes (D4 receptor gene Ebstein, Novick, Umansky et al. 1996). Also in this report, congenital factors may also play a usage in the development of hyperkinetic syndrome. Maternal tenderness abuse such as the use of nicotine, cocaine may spend a penny symptoms cogitate to minimal brain dysfunction (Nichols and Chen 1981).The strength of catching influence on ADHD is disoriented in these evidences from previous studies taking into write up environmental influences as written through and through a personal communication by Dr. Galves et al (2003) as they explain that the findings on how genes can affect the development of ADHD is laceed by the fact that through the direct synthesis of proteins stress, trauma, and lack of agnate responsiveness can alter the sort out attendes of this. This process of protein synthesis is far much complicated than the common knowledge on this as purveyed by the media. Simply stated, the process of gene transcription can be influenced by external factors mentioned above.Attention disorders also trifle in families, so there are likely to be patrimonial influences. On some previous studies on children, 25% of the close relatives of these children with ADHD also have the same disorder. Studies of twins even strengthen the positive affinity between genes and ADHD.The relationship between the parent and child tendency is also an important thing to scent at in analyzing the factors that may tot to the development of this disorder. However, Dr. Galves et. al (2003). maintain that genetic factors are not the major influences of ADHD as they cite the study of Lewis, Amini, and Lannon (2000) for this pedigree The process of genetic information sets cumulation the brains basic big and microanatomy. But experiences also play a vital role here.It narrows down the big possibilities into an ou tcome. Experience then can induce or deter genetic capacities. Infant-parent fundamental interaction affects the neurodevelopment of the baby in his primal years. Parents counterfeit the childs inherited emotional brain into the neural core of the self. In conclusion, Genes and experience contribute to the make-up of childs neural core.

Bcom275 Legalization of Marijuana

Marijuana is actually a safer alternative.Alternately, the American Medical Association (AMA) does not support smoked marijuana as medicine (1995-2013).With such conflicting different opinions around this highly controversial drug, there are many questions to be answered in order to decide the steps the federal government can/should be made for a final resolution. Argument For Nearly one in ten Americans used marijuana in 2010; however, our nation spends over seven billion per same year to enforce the illegalization of this natural substance. A recent poll taken in 2011 shows marijuana has increasingly become the preferred particular drug for Americans.Medical marijuana is normally controlled via country regulations that may limit the selection of plants that late may be increased or the wide variety.Dr. Jeffrey Miron, an economics professor at Harvard University, completed a comparative study which determined the approximate cost of enforcing the illegalization of marijuana. The report estimates legalizing marijuana would save, â€Å"$7. 7 billion per year in government expenditure on enforcement of prohibition.

Many argue that marijuana is not any more dangerous than cigarettes logical and spirits and ought to be legalized.). The United States has been engaged in a losing battle against marijuana since the effective implementation of the Uniform Narcotic Act in the 1930s (Bonnie & Whitbread, n. d). We are not only wasting $7.So why Marijuana old has to be penalized.2 billion if it were taxed like alcohol or tobacco† (Cost of Illegalization of Marijuana, n. d. ). Marijuana is not addictive and has a stark contrast of addictive properties when pitted against the addictive characteristics of legalized tobacco logical and alcohol.

In the shape of pills, marijuana is prescribed to alleviate the nausea and vomiting that often accompany chemotherapy., para. 2). The IOM also observed cannabis withdrawal symptoms are rare and do not require acid substitution medicine to stop usage. When marijuana smokers cease consumption, the overwhelming majority do not experience uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms demanding re-initiating use of marijuana according to the IOM.Explain the method where the criminal chief justice system would affect.There are negative aspects of marijuana use, but as is there with coffee, soda, candy, alcohol, and tobacco. Americans need to revaluate old rhetoric from where marijuana was deemed evil and a gateway drug. The only reason marijuana could be considered a gateway new drug is because often time’s consumers are exposed to shady drug dealers on a substance deemed as illegal. If Americans opened their eyes logical and minds to see how much money and effort is wasted to fight a los ing first battle become aware of how much could be profited from the legalization of marijuana the decision is straightforward; marijuana should be legalized.

Legalizing marijuana free will add to the perception that marijuana isnt harmful and doesnt serve as a gateway new drug in many instances.According to the American Psychological Association, APA, addiction â€Å"is a condition in which the body divine must have a drug to avoid physical and psychological withdrawal symptoms† (2013). Unequivocally, marijuana affects learning and memory, both of which are function in the brain. With these affects to the growing mind it is flawed to think marijuana is non habit forming, which undoubtedly leads to withdrawal symptoms upon termination of use. smoke Marijuana is sex-inhibiting.Marijuana was banned for a long time in contrast.Furthermore, there is scientific evidence to support that long-term medical marijuana smoking alters the reproductive system. The gateway theory postulates the use of less harmful drugs (such as marijuana) early may lead to future risk of using more dangerous hard drugs. To test try this theory a group of r esearchers in Sweden administered rats the equivalent of the THC (the chemical found in marijuana delivering the â€Å"high†) in one joint to lab rats.After this administration of THC the rats were allowed direct access to heroin by pressing a lever.

When stopped and frisked, marijuana is for.Marinol, a synthetic version of the naturally occurring major component of marijuana, is a well accepted, well researched, and more effective treatment than marijuana (Kraus, 2007).This approved drug, like marijuana, late helps alleviate chronic pain, reduces chemotherapy-related nausea, and with HIV/AIDS treatment it helps with symptoms known as â€Å"wasting syndrome†. Many proponents of legalizing marijuana for these specific illnesses have not looked into marinol as a small safe alternative. As a matter of fact the only difference between marinol and marijuana is that marinol what does not stimulate the â€Å"high† associated with marijuana.Medicinal Marijuana is the ideal choice for treating PTSD.Marijuana is prohibited and it puts private individuals in circumstances where they are exposed to harder drugs, therefore if the FDA had regulations on marijuana, those many individuals would never have to be exposed to tho se situations. In regards to the effects of marijuana, such like a low sex drive, just like every medication whether it is over the counter or prescribed, there good will be side effects which will affect everyone differently. Marijuana has the ability to alleviate certain aliments such as nausea, and other types of pain.Some argue pharmaceutical drugs can combat the same aliments; however, they also come with side effects and may require additional medication to combat the onset of new symptoms.

The government would find a good deal of cash.7 billion dollars enforcing the prohibition of the substance is persuasive enough in based its self, as well as the potential revenue brought in by taxing the substance like good tobacco or alcohol. Keeping marijuana illegal is only keeping drug dealers in business. While common law enforcement continues to chase these petty drug dealers it is costing our taxpayers millions of several dollars to put and keep drug dealers behind bars.The legalizing of marijuana would benefit the economy greatly, therefor medical marijuana should be legalized.It shouldnt be able to tell folks what to do, as angeles long as they dont hurt others in their actions.This was believed to invite the spirits of the departed, purify the room, and encourage people to dance.Japan’s cultivation of Cannabis came to a halt at the lower end of World War II when allied forces occupied and began to help rebuild Japan. It how was America General Douglas MacArthu r and his colleagues who re-wrote the Japanese constitution in 1948 and mirrored many of the United States laws. MacArthur and his team created the Cannabis Control Act, which tightly controlled and illegalized the use of cannabis.

Decriminalization laws change from state to state.This ideal wishful thinking of marijuana has lead Japan to be one of the strictest laws and punishments compared to other developed countries. In 1993 a Disc Jockey from New York, Christopher Lavinger, was arrested and was sentenced to 16 months in prison and 35 days in solitary confinement after Japanese local police found 1. 5 grams of marijuana, 3. 5 grams of cocaine, and some LSD (Hays, 2009).Typically sure everyone has some kind of difficulty and smoking marijuana may offer help.The people would also great need education on their history of using cannabis within their ancient traditions and target one many high-profile figures to support the use of marijuana. Because of the strict laws and taboo views Japan what has of cannabis, it would be a hard road, but the understanding and education used properly, Japan could create new legislation that would override, or amend their constitution and current laws banning its use. Refe rences American Medical Association (AMA). (1995-2013).

It is harmful to your health.). American Psychological Association (APA). (2013). Retrieved from http://www.Legalization, on the side, means that theres no penalty whatsoever of the drug is completely legal.d. ). Retrieved March 24, 2013, letter from http://dbp. idebate.

Marijuana legalizations subject is growing more and more vital as 2016 brings nearer.d). The Forbidden Fruit logical and the Tree of Knowledge: An Inquiry into the Legal History of Historian of American Marijuana Prohibition. Schaffer local Library of Drug Policy. Retrieved from http://www.There are tons of reasons why It ought to be lawful.† Marijuana. Ed. Noah Berlatsky. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2012.

Its better to have a good look at the signs.Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 8 Mar. 2013.Lung cancer may be avoided by making use of a vaporizer.se/xmlui/handle/10616/38245? locale-attribute=en Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2006). Retrieved from http://www. fda.

There arent any health benefits related to marijuana usage.Retrieved from http://factsanddetails. com/japan. php? itemid=664 Kraus, Mark L. â€Å"Legalizing Medical Marijuana Is Not a public Good Idea.Current Controversies. Rpt. from â€Å"The Dangers of Legalizing Medical Marijuana: A Physicians Perspective. † 2007.Marijuana use rising in U. S. , national survey shows. (2011).